a écrit :[center]
A case for a duty to feed the hungry: GM plants and the third world [/center]
Lucy Carter1, 2
(1) The School of History, Philosophy, Religion and Classics, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
(2) ARC Centre of Excellence for Integrative Legume Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Lucy Carter
Email:
l.carter@uq.edu.au Received: 14 July 2006 Revised: 10 November 2006 Accepted: 10 November 2006 Published online: 24 January 2007
Abstract This article is concerned with a discussion of the plausibility of the claim that GM technology has the potential to provide the hungry with sufficient food for subsistence. Following a brief outline of the potential applications of GM in this context, a history of the green revolution and its impact will be discussed in relation to the current developing world agriculture situation. Following a contemporary analysis of malnutrition, the claim that GM technology has the potential to provide the hungry with sufficient nourishment will be discussed within the domain of moral philosophy to determine whether there exists a moral obligation to pursue this end if and only if the technology proves to be relatively safe and effective. By using Peter Singer’s duty of moral rescue, I argue that we have a moral duty to assist the third world through the distribution of such GM plants. I conclude the paper by demonstrating that my argument can be supported by applying a version of the Precautionary Principle on the grounds that doing nothing might be worse for the current situation.
Keywords Genetically modified food - Duty of rescue - Malnutrition - Green revolution - Precautionary principle
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Introduction
Proponents of GM crop technology advance three chief claims about its potential benefits. The first is that GM crops can encourage environmental sustainability by reducing the impact of agriculture on the environment. The second concerns the potential for GM plant technology to reduce malnutrition especially in the third world through the development of plants that are resistant to pest-derived disease or abiotic stress such as soil alkalinity or drought conditions. The third and more ambitious claim is that GM crop technology has the potential to contribute significantly to the delivery of health-care through the development of second-generation GM crops such as biopharmaceuticals or, edible plant vaccines.
This paper is concerned with a discussion of the plausibility of the second claim namely, that GM technology has the potential to provide the hungry with sufficient food for subsistence. Following a brief discussion of the potential applications of GM in this context, a history of the green revolution and its impact will be discussed in relation to the current developing world agriculture situation. Following a brief look at the concept of malnutrition particularly in the developing world, the claim that GM technology has the potential to provide the hungry with sufficient nourishment will be discussed within the domain of moral philosophy to determine whether there might exist a moral obligation to pursue this end if and only if the technology proves to be relatively safe and effective.
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Some potential applications of GM plant biotechnology with respect to improving plant quality
Genetic modification of plants (particularly, crops) confers several advantages over traditional agricultural methods.1 Desirable traits in plants include increased growth rate, plant architecture, stress tolerance and nutrient content.2 [8]. For example, improvement in agronomic traits such as pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, salinity tolerance and viral and fungal resistance have the potential to improve or increase yield quantities while limiting significantly the amount of toxic pesticides that are currently used in conventional agricultural practices worldwide.3 The fortification of plants with essential micronutrients for the purpose of enhancing the nutritional value of food is another benefit of genetically modifying plants.
Theoretically, the advantages of using transgenic crops include a potential reduction in input in terms of labour and machinery costs (of particular importance to resource-poor farmers), a reduction in the use of potentially harmful agrochemicals, and a potential reduction in the amount of land required for cultivation due to an increase in yield (or rather a decrease in the numbers of diseased plants).
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From green revolution to gene revolution
The release of traditionally crossbred high yielding staple crops such as rice and wheat to developing countries in the 1950s and 1960s is now referred to as the Green Revolution. A concerted effort led to the founding of two international agricultural research centres (IARCs)4 whose purpose was to produce cultivars that were less likely to succumb to pest-derived disease or had improved plant architectural characteristics that increased grain production. Given that (1) rice, wheat and corn account for most of the world’s caloric intake [8]; (2) more than 70% of food-insecure people live in rural areas and; (3) farming in developing countries is primarily focused on subsistence production and is small in scale and resource-poor [4, (p. s130)] the IARC’s primary objective was to produce plants that would reduce hunger and therefore poverty. For all practical purposes, this ambitious undertaking worked.
Yield improvements were made in a number of ways. In rice, for example, the incorporations of genes for photoperiod insensitivity allowed planting all year round, regardless of day length, plant maturation time decreased, and greater pest resistance was achieved [4]. Resistance to abiotic stressors on plants were also improved with the development of traits resistant to unfavourable soil conditions such as alkalinity, salinity and iron and boron toxicity [4]. The follow-on effects of these advances were dramatic for world cereal production. The green revolution created higher productivity that generated higher employment opportunities as well as increased activity in trade, transport and construction [4].
Retrospectively however, the green revolution caused some unintended problems as a result of transgenesis. High-yielding varieties such as those developed to grow in Latin America and Asia required substantial amounts of water and fertiliser. In instances where fertilisation was not adequate, modern varieties did worse than traditional varieties [7]. Modern varieties were also resource-intensive, an aspect not favourable to resource-poor farmers. Over-fertilisation resulted in lodging where the plant height increased dramatically with nitrogen application and the plant fell over. Leaves then decayed in the water and the plant did not receive sufficient sunlight [7]. The IARC’s response to the problem of lodging was to locate genes for shortness from other plants and breed these genes into plants to create semi-dwarfs5 but this had little impact in decreasing the amounts of fertiliser used. The type of fertiliser commonly used only contained a fraction of the essential nutrients required by the plant and needed for human health. The result was the production of plants poorer in nutrients than traditional staple crop varieties.
Increases in pest-derived diseases were also noted in high-yielding varieties requiring prophylactic applications of insecticides and fungicides to protect crops. A concentration of modern varieties required farmers to gradually decrease land space usually saved for other crops, a practice which allowed the soil to replenish itself through cycles of rotation. These new properties resulted in poorer soil health and poorer human health overall even though caloric intake per capita increased significantly [4].
Unfortunately, the green revolution did little to benefit developing regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa where the arid climate could not support modern varieties of rice and wheat. For these regions, staple foods consisted of root crops such as cassava and tropical maize and little research was directed at improving those crops until the late 1980s [6].
One of the criticisms of plant biotechnological advances, or what has now been referred to as the gene revolution, is that unlike the green revolution, the majority of gains produced primarily benefit agribusiness. Davies (2003) points out that “current traits exploited commercially in transgenic crops relate to crop protection and product senescence” rather than features that benefit developing world agriculture [4, (p. s128)]. One such exception is the development of beta-carotene enriched rice, or Golden Rice. Golden Rice has been genetically modified to produce beta-carotene, an essential component in the production of Vitamin A. Since a vast proportion of the world’s poor consume rice as a staple food, the distribution of ‘Golden Rice’ would, theoretically, improve the nutritional quality of rice and therefore improve the overall health of individuals in developing countries.
Other examples include the development of pest-resistance in crops grown in developing countries such as viral-resistant cassava in Africa or nematode-resistant potato in Bolivia. Infrastructural problems such as seed distribution and adequate information provision may significantly limit the poverty relevance of transgenic crops but there is certainly scope for revision of practice in the following areas:
First, public agricultural research must be better supported. Second, a clearer division of labour and better collaboration between public and private industry is required. Third, domestic policies must be in place to strengthen the agricultural sector, to support a domestic seed industry and to develop adequate markets. These tasks are the responsibility of national governments, donor agencies and private industry [13, (p. 93)].
Sceptics might argue that current efforts made by the agrobiotechnology industry to fund research into GM crops that benefit the third world is simply a political response to growing public opposition to GM foods in developed countries.6 Nevertheless, economic and political issues aside, the industry has demonstrated that (1) GM technology has the potential to produce crops that benefit the third world significantly and (2) private and public sectors can work in unison to create products that can potentially improve malnutrition in the third world, of which Golden rice is an example.
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The nature of hunger in the third world
Current estimates calculated by the United Nations Millennium Project Hunger Taskforce reveal that approximately 842 million people are food insecure worldwide. Of those, the vast majority (798 million) reside in developing countries.7 More than half of the world’s malnourished live in Asia and the Pacific but Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest number of malnourished per capita with 33% of the population in this region considered to be undernourished [9, (p. 42)].
There are various forms of malnutrition: (1) overnutrition, a condition not commonly thought of as an example of malnutrition occurs predominantly in developed countries and commonly leads to illnesses associated with high-caloric intake such as heart-disease, hypertension and diabetes; (2) secondary malnutrition occurs from an inability to absorb or digest food usually as a consequence of disease such as diarrhea, intestinal parasites or respiratory illness; (3) macronutrient malnutrition refers to insufficient protein-calorie intake, is usually characterized as acute hunger and results in undernourishment over a distinct period and is reflective of physical wasting and starvation and finally; (4) micronutrient malnutrition is caused by a diet lacking in sufficient primary micronutrients such as iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc [7]. This type of malnutrition is often referred to as ‘hidden hunger’ and involves constant undernourishment or recurring seasonal undernourishment resulting in poor child physical and mental development, high child mortality due to hunger related diseases, but not starvation [9]. Hidden hunger refers to micronutrient or vitamin deficiencies found in vast numbers of people who otherwise have access to adequate calories and protein.
Contrary to popular belief, most hunger-related deaths commonly occur from secondary disease caused by insufficient micronutrient or macronutrient intake rather than from insufficient caloric intake. Children are often the most susceptible to micronutrient deficiencies and generally die first, followed by pregnant and lactating women.8
Other macro and micro contextual influences on hunger include the HIV/AIDS pandemic particularly in developing regions, other infectious diseases such as malaria, human displacement due to conflict, and the sudden impact of natural disasters. In such cases, undernourishment9 can be both a cause and a consequence of poverty.10
I will argue that if GM crop technology has the potential to provide the third world with the means (in whatever form) to grow crops that are resistant to abiotic stressors such as (frost, salinity, drought, etc.) and biotic (pest-derived) stressors, then its use could potentially alleviate malnutrition and therefore hunger, as well as potentially decrease environmental degradation. Further, that if the risk to human health of consuming GM crops is measurable (to some degree) and found to be within safe limits, then we may have a duty to assist victims of hunger and poverty. In doing so, I will use Peter Singer’s duty of moral rescue argument in examining the strength of an obligation to rescue the poor within the context of malnutrition in the third world and the potential contribution GM technology can make in alleviating some of this suffering.
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Singer and the duty of moral rescue
Thirty years ago, Peter Singer defended the controversial view that we have a strong moral obligation to rescue those in need of assistance [12]. A rudimentary version of the argument asserts that P1 Absolute poverty is bad.
P2 If we can prevent some of this suffering (without sacrificing anything of comparable significance), then
C we ought to assist [12].
Absolute poverty differs from relative poverty in that people who suffer from relative poverty still have access to uncontaminated drinking water, emergency healthcare, or some nominal level of nourishment.11 Singer illustrates this argument using the following hypothetical scenario:
If I am walking past a shallow pond and see a child drowning in it, I ought to wade in and pull the child out. This will mean getting my clothes muddy, but this is insignificant, while the death of the child would presumably be a very bad thing [12, (p. 573)].
Singer makes two further points regarding the preceding argument. The first, is that consequentialists and non-consequentialists alike should accept the above conclusion (i.e., that we have a duty to rescue those in need if it is of little cost to ourselves) since both theorists would affirm that we should promote what is good and prevent what is bad (in harmony with a theory of rights) [3]. The second, a duty to assist the poor and hungry would only be morally obligatory if the assistance we provide alleviates suffering to some degree, in other words, if it is efficacious.12
There are two areas of contention in discussions about this scenario. The first relates to whether the analogy between a victim of calamity (in this case a drowning child) and victims of chronic poverty, is in fact a fair one. The second and perhaps more complex area of dispute relates to the nature and scope of obligation we have towards victims in need of assistance.
There are three main schools of thought relating to our obligations (or lack of them) to those in need of assistance. The first group can be identified as proponents of Singer’s analogy and thus maintain that we have some obligation to do what we can to help those less fortunate than ourselves although the strength (or weakness) of this obligation varies considerably among commentators in this category. A second group of thinkers believe that assisting those in need of rescue is a supererogatory13 act or an act of charity and does not contain any obligation. A third group of commentators argue that we have an obligation not to provide assistance to the destitute for reasons that are neo-Malthusian14 in nature.
In a postscript to the original Famine, Affluence and Morality, published in 2002, Peter Singer defended his original argument but restated the importance of the effectiveness of aid. Singer reiterated our individual duty to assist the hungry through the giving of aid if the cost to ourselves is materially insignificant and if the aid we contribute is effective in ameliorating suffering. Singer most recently argued,
That there is a serious case for saying that if a country refuses to take any steps to slow the rate of its population growth, we should not give it aid. ...if after a dispassionate analysis of all the available information, we come to the conclusion that without population control we will not, in the long run, be able to prevent famine or other catastrophes, then it may be more humane in the long run to aid those countries that are prepared to take strong measures to reduce population growth15 [12, (p. 580)].
If we accept this condition on giving aid, all we are basically required to concede is that third world governments shoulder some responsibility for ensuring that greater long term economic strategies are put into place that provide, for instance, greater food security thereby diminishing the need for third world families to reproduce at a rate that to some degree sustains the welfare of older generations [12]. For if the aid we give is not effective, then we are not morally obligated to continue to provide it.
For the remainder of this section, I want to spend some time bolstering Singer’s duty to assist by introducing another possible avenue for the justification of the provision of GM crops (or GM crop technology) to the third world under the banner of philanthropic assistance. I will argue that the alleviation of poverty (malnutrition), may justify the introduction of GM crops in the third world by invoking the Precautionary Principle simply because not doing so might generate a much worse situation.16
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The precautionary principle and GM crops
The Precautionary Principle (PP), which is found in both international and national environmental law, can be interpreted in widely disparate ways, ranging from extreme risk aversion to more refined and moderated expressions of concern. All interpretations of the PP are intended to provide guidance for decision-making on issues of social concern. Most recently, the PP has been applied to debates about the acceptability of new genetic technologies and in particular, GM crops.
The PP’s chief validation is that caution is necessary and should be exercised in advance of obtaining conclusive scientific proof that a particular development may have adverse or irreversible effects. A challenge for advocates of the PP has been to define its scope and purpose—to make it operationalisable. Vagueness and ambiguity make concrete formulation of the PP problematic, but the following very general assumptions arguably capture the spirit of the PP.
The Precautionary Principle recognises that (1) There is often insufficient scientific evidence to make an unequivocal judgment about the particular outcomes of a proposed course of action.
(2) We ought to exercise rational prudence towards the environment.
(3) Living systems are valuable.
(4) We ought not degrade or impoverish items of value.
Implicit in these statements is the conviction that the natural environment has intrinsic value; and that when we make decisions that could detrimentally or irreversibly affect the environment or the welfare of future generations, we should exercise caution [11]. Also contained in formulations of the PP is a caution against accepting the view that the environment possesses an unlimited capacity to recover from damage inflicted upon it.
Using perceptions about levels of risk, the extent and probability of harm and desired outcome as indicators, we can roughly divide versions of the PP into two categories—strong formulations of the PP and weak formulations.17 Table 1 illustrates some key differences between strong and weak versions of the PP.
(pour la table des differentes variantes du principe de précaution reportez vous au document word joint)
A key distinction between the strong PP and the weak PP is that the strong version lacks reference to anything other than environmental risk. It presupposes that environmental risk is the sole determinant of any proposed action. It also requires that no action is permissible unless it is certain that no harm will prevail. This very high level of risk aversion sets a standard that is almost impossible to achieve, since definitive evidence of safety in many cases is effectively impossible to prove.
A major assumption made in the strong version is that any action (whether direct or indirect) will result in damage, that damage is irreversible, and that irreversibility is a disvalue. However the belief that doing nothing in all cases is itself without risk is clearly mistaken. There are imaginable instances where doing nothing would result in considerable harm to the environment. One could also imagine instances where harm to the environment is not always irreversible or cases where irreversibility is not necessarily a disvalue.
Another assumption made by the strong version of the PP is that any benefits that may accrue from a direct action are largely irrelevant—no matter how great the benefits may be. Under this view, no technological advances that posed some level of risk would be acceptable, including those advances that could potentially alleviate suffering.
The weak version of the PP on the other hand, is far more pragmatic. It acknowledges that scientific certainty is not a necessary condition for action when deciding matters of environmental risk and it allows for weighing up putative benefits as well as environmental risks of the technology. It is sometimes referred to as the active PP because of its fundamental objective to push ahead with a particular proposal despite the possibility of negative consequences, by applying sound risk minimisation strategies and using alternatives where appropriate.
As with the strong version, the weaker form of the PP acknowledges that any potential action affecting the environment has the possibility of producing harm. However, the weaker version recognises that damage to the environment is a potential and perhaps significant risk with respect to some actions, and thus recommends that all actions should proceed with caution. The weaker version achieves this by supporting investment in research into alternative methods that may bring about similar benefits but under less risk.
Unlike the strong version whose upshot is restrictive—recommending strict regulation, moratoria or bans—the weaker version aims to introduce pragmatic risk management strategies that work towards compromise between risks and benefits. Benefits are taken into account if they are viewed as potentially significant and the recognition is made that failures to act have attendant risks.18
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ConclusionLet us assume we accept that (1) GM technology has the potential to decrease future environmental degradation through the planting of crops that are resistant to abiotic and biotic stressors;
(2) the application of GM technology has the potential to return micronutrients to soil that has been depleted of these elements and thus provide farmers with crops that are high in nutrient content and;
(3) some causal responsibility falls on the shoulders of third world governments in providing the means to achieve this.
We might then argue that there is a moral imperative (through the application of a weak version of the PP) for third world nations (where significant numbers of malnourished people live) to receive whatever emergency food aid, GM crop technology or nutraceutical can be made available to them. By applying a weak version of the PP in arguing for feeding the hungry, we could justify the introduction of some GM technology or products derived from GM technology on the grounds that doing nothing might be worse for the current situation 19 , 20 This argument could also be extended to include GM crops that aim to replenish soil nutrients, are disease resistant, increase yield, or tolerate abiotic stress such as frost, aridity or excessive moisture.21
There is some caution warranted here when using this line of reasoning across the board to justify the use of any technology that may assist the poor. It would be morally questionable for example, to command that malnourished people consume GM food or medicine that is in pre-clinical experimental stages.22 It would also be morally dubious to coerce developing world farmers into growing hectares of non-staple monocultures that benefit the developed world but are potentially detrimental to the local people’s economic and nutritional well-being as well as the local environment.23
A precautionary approach to the introduction of novel GM crops to the third world might recognise that:
provided technological expectations are met, it could well be argued that the use of Golden Rice can be justified by a reasonable application of the precautionary approach, if alternative methods are less cost-effective and unable to achieve the aim of preventing VAD [vitamin A deficiency] [10, (p. 59)].
It has been pointed out by Vandana Shiva, that alternative methods of preventing VAD may in fact be more cost-effective than the widespread seed distribution of Golden Rice.24 The current strategy to prevent VAD consists of delivering expensive vitamin supplementation to remote areas that are difficult to reach and delivery is often disrupted by civil conflict. It has been estimated that “fewer than half of all children in countries with endemic vitamin A deficiency are estimated to receive these supplements” [14, (pp. 64–65)].
Recent biotechnological advances have enabled the development of GM crops that confer several advantages over conventional breeding methods. GM crops may potentially alleviate, to some extent, malnutrition in the third world as well as potentially decrease environmental degradation that has mostly resulted from current agricultural practices. An application of Singer’s duty of moral rescue, to the current third world scenario, presents us with a moral platform on which to launch an appeal to assistance. Provided certain conditions are met, Singer’s argument can be strengthened by using a weak version of the Precautionary Principle. My argument rests on the assumption that doing nothing (when opportunity exists for doing something) might be worse for the current situation.
Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Professors Wayne Hall and William Grey for their contribution to earlier drafts of this paper.
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References
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4. Davies, W. P. (2003). An historical perspective from the green revolution to the gene revolution. Nutrition Reviews, 61(6), s124–134.
5. Estrella, H. et al. (2001). Genetically modified crops—hope for developing countries. Embo Reports, 2, 256–258.
6. Evenson, R. E., & Gollin, D. (2003). Assessing the impact of the green revolution, 1960 to 2000. Science, 300, 758–762.
7. Foster, P., & Leathers, H. D. (1999). The world food problem: Tackling the causes of undernutrition in the third world. Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
8. Goff, S. A., & Salmeron, J. M. (2004). Back to the future of cereals. Scientific American, 291(2), 26–33.
9. Millennium Project Task Force on Hunger (2004). Halving Hunger by 2015: A framework for action. Interim Report. New York.
10. Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2004). The use of genetically modified crops in developing countries: A follow-up discussion paper. London.
11. Parker, J. (1998) Precautionary principle. In R. Chadwick (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied ethics (pp. 633–641). San Diego: Academic Press.
12. Singer, P. (2002). Famine, affluence, and morality. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), Ethics in practice: An anthology (pp. 572–581). Oxford: Blackwell.
13. Tripp, R. (2001). Twixt cup and lip—biotechnology and resource-poor farmers. Nature Biotechnology, 19, 93.
14. University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics (2002) Top 10 biotechnologies for improving health in developing countries. Toronto: University of Toronto.
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Footnotes1 It is interesting to note that plants have traditionally been crossbred for centuries, effectively giving them very similar characteristics to transgenic plants developed using advanced biotechnologies. Some of the advantages of inserting desirable traits into plants in the laboratory include improved accuracy in inserting the desired gene(s) into the recipient’s genome, predicting with greater accuracy the result of the insertion and speeding up the transgenic processes. Chemical mutations, as well as the use of gamma rays and other non-GM breeding techniques ‘disturb’ the plant’s genome much the same way as GM. These methods are also highly unpredictable but they have not received much coverage in the media.
2 Growth features include grain size or number and maturation speed; plant architecture includes height, branching and flowering; stress tolerance includes resistance to abiotic and biotic stressors such as drought, disease and herbicides and; nutrient content refers to the quality of starch, proteins, lipids and vitamins available in the plant.
3 2001 estimates of the impact insects had in the developing world concluded that 15% of the world’s pre-harvest food is lost to damage caused by insects. Further, more than 11 million hectares are cleared annually by third world farmers in search of more productive land. See Ref. [5].
4 The first two major centres to be founded was the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines (IRRI) and the International Center for Wheat and Maize Improvement in Mexico (CIMMYT).
5 Another trait plant characteristic developed during this period was the relocation of the seed cluster or the panicle, in rice and wheat. Traditional varieties send their cluster of seeds high into the air shading the highest leaves on the plant, the flag leaf, and preventing the plant from receiving maximum energy. Scientists bred the modern varieties to send the flag leaf high above the panicle to allow the plant access to the maximum amount of sunshine. See Ref. [7].
6 It might be argued that the agrobiotechnology industry has successfully appeased public opposition to GM in some sectors by directing research in this direction. This might be true, but irrelevant to the truth of claims about the benefits of GM crops in the third world.
7 The estimated number of people who are malnourished in countries in economic transition such as Latin America and the Caribbean is 34 million while developed countries contain approximately 10 million undernourished people.
8 The global burden of disease attributable to undernutrition is staggering. Undernutrition in children aged under 5 years for example, has been estimated to cause 3.6 million deaths annually. Vitamin A deficiency for example, among children, is associated with an estimated 20% of measles mortality, 24% of diarrhoea mortality, 20% of malaria incidence and mortality and 3% of mortality associated with other infectious causes of disease. Iron deficiency (anaemia) contributes substantially to increased risk of mental disability, while zinc deficiency has been found to significantly compromise healthy immunological development in children. See Chapters 2–5 entitled Childhood and Maternal Undernutrition. In Comparative Quantification of Health Risks (Vol 1). M. Ezzati, A. Lopez, A. Rodgers and C. Murray, eds. WHO. Geneva: 2004.
9 I use the terms, undernourishment and malnutrition synonymously.
10 It must be noted that an increase in the production of food using genetic modification is not a panacea for world hunger—but it may help to alleviate it.
11 For example, in Australia, the poor (incl. the homeless) suffer relative poverty since most have access to charitable organizations that provide clothing, food or emergency healthcare.
12 Singer maintains that if the aid that is provided by individuals does not serve its purpose well, then our obligation no longer remains since the alleviation of hunger, suffering, etc. will not eventuate.
13 An act that is morally praiseworthy when performed but not morally blameworthy when omitted.
14 Neo-Malthusians maintain that the giving of aid to the poor is counter-productive and results in further over-population. This argument is often taken further by arguing that an increase in population leads to an increase in net suffering since provisions are scarcer still when the population increases. The conclusion is made that it would be wrong to give aid since in the long term it would only increase suffering.
15 Singer does not elaborate on the means that might be employed to reduce population growth other than suggesting that dispensing contraceptives and conducting sterilizations may play a role in a broader strategy to create conditions in the third world under which people do not need to have so many children to feel secure in old age. The free dispensation of contraceptives, the provision of sex education and a creation of greater economic security are acceptable forms of population control. However, the idea that performing sterilizations might also feature as an acceptable form of population reduction, does not seem to fit comfortably within Singer’s original purpose. There is no further discussion in Singer’s postscript about this suggestion so comment is made difficult. Suffice to say that not providing aid because such drastic measures of population control are not undertaken, would be inconsistent and immoral.
16 This of course is based on a number of assumptions outlined a little later—one of which is the requirement for an acceptable and in some sense measurable account of the relative safety and efficacy of distributing GM crops or the means by which to grow them.
17 This is a simplification of a more complex situation. Arguably, there are many possible PPs of varying strength, and for simplicity I have depicted examples from opposite ends of a spectrum.
18 Parallels should not be drawn between a weak version of the Precautionary Principle and a standard cost–benefit approach to environmental management. The weak version of the PP described here does apply a cost–benefit calculus to environmental uncertainties. The difference however, is that the PP approach contains within it, an implicit understanding that the environment possesses intrinsic value, that is, that living systems are valuable in themselves. Further, when we make decisions that could detrimentally or irreversibly affect the welfare of future generations, we should exercise caution. Also contained in a weak PP approach (that is not necessarily contained in a standard cost–benefit analysis), is a caution against accepting the view that the environment possesses an unlimited capacity to recover from damage inflicted upon it.
19 By ‘doing nothing’ I mean a failure or omission to act either by placing prohibitions or restrictions on growing or distributing GM crops or a similar undertaking that has the same result.
20 It might be iterated at this point that introducing GM plant technology is certainly not the only way of alleviating malnutrition. There are generally four widely recognised strategies for reducing malnutrition. These are; specifically targeted supplementation programs, food fortification, dietary diversification and disease reduction. Just as reliance on supplementation programs alone is not an effective means of eliminating malnutrition and poverty due to limited seasonal access to remote areas and sheer expense, so the planting of GM crops will not solely provide a solution to hunger. See Ref. [1]. Other ways of increasing food security might include improved infrastructure such as better roads, the creation of regional markets for exporting local crops, and providing small loans to farmers in order to allow them opportunity to establish small lots. See Wambugu. 2004. Modifying Africa: How Biotechnology Can Help the Poor and Hungry, A Case Study From Kenya.
21 An anonymous reviewer has pointed out that many obstacles remain before real applications of genetic technologies are deemed not only technically sound, but also politically and economically acceptable. Because Peter Singer’s second constraint for the justifiable imposition of a duty of moral rescue in this context is highly dependent on efficacy, it may be some time before the real benefits of plant genetic technologies are realized. Assuming Singer’s notion of efficacy also implies the use of ethically sound management practices such as those based on democracy, equity and sustainability in the application of these technologies, many challenges remain. It may yet be the case that social, political and cultural issues are greater challenges for the introduction of GM plants than those posed by more technical obstacles.
22 Recently, the media incorrectly reported that Zambia refused emergency food aid for exactly this reason. There are two points to be made here: evidence of safety was established in the literature some time before the offer of emergency food aid was made. Second, later investigations revealed the reason Zambia refused food aid from the United States was politically driven. The Zambian government at the time believed it was not in the country’s interest to misalign itself with Europe by accepting GM food since the European public and later, the European government, voiced strong objections to the distribution of any GM products. See Ref. [2]
23 It must be noted here, that I am by no means assuming that the introduction or production of GM plant technology or GM crops will alone result in a decrease of mortality and morbidity rates in the third world. I am simply arguing that GM crops may assist in alleviating some hunger or some poverty or some environmental degradation and that this desirable.
24 See The “Golden Rice” Hoax—When Public Relations Replaces Science by Vandana Shiva available from
http://online.sfsu.edu/∼rone/Geessay...enricehoax.html accessed 12 October
2004. Vandana Shiva suggests one alternative to preventing VAD is biodiversity conservation and propagation of plants naturally rich in Vitamin A. Some common locally produced and consumed crops common to Indian diets, for example, are amaranth, curry and coriander leaves, vegetables such as spinach, pumpkin and tomato and fruits such as mango, oranges and jackfruit. Although this is a desirable solution in the long term, it is somewhat impractical in the current circumstances and may not prevent VAD in the short term primarily because available land and soil quality could not support such diverse crops without other intervention. However, just as GM plant technology is not a panacea for the world’s food problems, nor would the planting of traditionally grown crops in current environments provide a complete solution to VAD. A more sensible approach may be to combine these and other methods of farming in a bid to increase overall Vitamin A intake and prevent malnutrition.